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Article
8/15/00
Pranayama, Yoga, and Ayurveda
by Marc Halpern, D.C.
Abstract
With the growing awareness of Ayurveda in the West, a more complete
picture of the yogic path is beginning to emerge. This path reconnects
the knowledge of two of India’s greatest ancient sciences. Together,
they comprise a whole whose two sides, like those of a coin, are
really inseparable. Ayurveda brings to Yoga an understanding of how to
remain physically and emotionally healthy while on the path to
enlightenment. Yoga brings to Ayurveda a deeper purpose for remaining
healthy, that purpose being to attain enlightenment.
Definition
Pranayama, the yogic art of breathing, comes from the root words prana
and ayama. Prana means “life force” and ayama means “expansion,
manifestation, or prolongation.” The practice of pranayama therefore
is the practice of expanding our own prana so that it harmonizes with
the universal prana. This results in oneness or merging of a
person’s own consciousness with universal consciousness. It is in
this union that we realize we are not simply a limited physical body,
but are, in fact, an immortal spirit.
Pranayama is breath control on the physical level and prana (life
force) control on the subtle level. This is achieved through conscious
inhalation (puraka), exhalation (recaka), and retention (kumbhaka) of
breath along with focused attention on some particular part or area of
the physical or subtle body, such as the heart or sixth cakra (the
so-called “third eye”) at the middle of the forehead.
Historical Context in Yoga
An early extant text of Hatha-Yoga (which includes pranayama) is the
Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika, written by Svatmarama. Later important texts
include the Shiva-Samhita and the Gherandha-Samhita. The Yoga-Sutra of
Patanjali, the most famous of all Yoga texts, was written over a
thousand years before the Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika. While describing the
eightfold path of Raja-Yoga (which includes Hatha-Yoga), it does not
go into great detail on either pranayama or asana, but instead
explores the philosophy of Yoga and gives an overview of its
methodology. The Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika, on the other hand, contains
detailed descriptions of proper preparation for pranayama, along with
instruction on its practice and warnings against its improper use.
The mastery of prana is one of the main goals of the yogi or yogini on
his or her way to enlightenment. Control over pranic flow opens the
door to higher consciousness and mastery of the illusion of time and
space within the physical body.
The Historical Context of Pranayama in Ayurveda
Classical Ayurvedic texts such as the Caraka-Samhita do not
specifically mention pranayama. However, these texts deal extensively
with the subject of prana and its functions in both health and
disease. Modern Ayurvedic practitioners approach the yogic pranayama
techniques from the perspective of health maintenance and disease
management, and not as much from the spiritual perspective.
Writings on the functions of the subtle body have been produced by
many great yogis and sages throughout the ages. The most prolific
modern author to research and recommunicate these ideas is David
Frawley, author of Tantric Yoga and the Wisdom Goddesses, Ayurveda and
the Mind, and Yoga and Ayurveda. These three texts are recommended for
deeper exploration of this subject.
Cautions Regarding the Practice of Pranayama
The practice of pranayama has always been surrounded by an air of
mystery. Since such practice is a gateway to yogic powers (siddhis),
gurus have traditionally been hesitant to teach it until the disciple
was able to prove his or her readiness. Readiness meant achieving a
significant degree of success with the yamas and niyamas as well as
asana. These practices prepare the body and mind to manage the
increased vibratory energy that comes with heightened prana.
Inappropriate or immature use of pranayama has been stated to cause
great harm both to the body and the mind.1 In addition, the reckless
sharing of the knowledge of pranayama is understood to dissipate its
potency.2
Many great yogis have known of the dangers of pranayama when performed
incorrectly: “. . . faulty practice puts undue stress on the lungs
and diaphragm. The respiratory system suffers and the nervous system
is adversely affected. The very foundation of a healthy body and a
sound mind is shaken by faulty practice of Pranayama.”3
Imbalances caused by the improper practice of pranayama have been
observed by both yogis and Ayurvedic practitioners alike. When a
person begins to practice prematurely, before diet and lifestyle have
been properly regulated, a person is in danger of heightening the
prana while the energy channels (nadis) are still obstructed. This
results in the prana charging recklessly through the body causing both
physical and psychological imbalances.4
A common cause of imbalance is attempting to progress too quickly. By
aggressively practicing pranayama without the proper preparation, the
well-being of the student is at great risk—even death is possible.5
Hence, gradual, slow progress is recommended.
Some of the dangers of pranayama lie in the bandhas and kumbhakas,
which, if performed improperly, cause pranic disturbances. Bandha
means “bondage” or “holding,” referring to the contraction and
holding of a body part. This is the method by which yogis control and
channel the flow of prana, ultimately guiding it into the central
canal, sushumna-nadi. Kumbhaka is the restraint of the breath. Both of
these practices powerfully interact with the pranic energy and when
performed improperly can lead to catastrophic consequences. The three
major bandhas are:
(1) Jalandhara-bandha: Here the chin is brought down to the notch at
the top of the sternum. This regulates pranic flow to the brain,
lungs, and heart. It is performed at the end of inhalation and during
retention. This pushes prana-vayu downward toward the chest.
(2) Uddiyana-bandha: Here the abdomen is contracted and drawn in,
which lifts the diaphragm up into the chest. It is performed at the
end of exhalation, during bahya-kumbhaka (retention following
exhalation).6 (Brahmananda’s commentary on the Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika
states that this is the natural experience of exhalation and does not
have to be consciously practiced.7 )
(3) Mula-bandha: Here the perineum is contracted. This increases the
upward flow of udana-vayu and decreases apana-vayu.
With proper practice and combination of these three bandhas, the
energy of apana-vayu moves upward to unite with prana-vayu in the
chest, which has been forced downward. Their unification pushes the
fused energies into the sushumna-nadi where the ultimate benefits of
pranayama are realized.
The Right Environment for Yogic Pranayama Practice
The ideal environment for yogic practices in general is one that is
bug free, clean, quiet, and safe with provisions and a moderate
climate. Cleanliness aids healthfulness. Quietude assists the inward
journey of the practitioner. Safety dissipates fear. Provisions negate
the need for gathering or earning. A moderate climate that is bug free
assures comfort. The yogi or yogini, free of concerns, is now able to
focus on his or her practices. While historically a yogi might have
had to build a hut in a non-populous area, today ashramas provide the
ideal setting.
Effects on the Subtle Body
Pranayama serves several purposes in Yoga. First, it is the method by
which the nadis, particularly the ida-nadi and pingala-nadi are
purified, allowing prana to flow into the central channel, the
sushumna-nadi.
In the ordinary state, prana flows with regularly alternating
dominance through the ida-nadi and the pingala-nadi. The effect of
this back-and-forth fluctuation is mental activity. Prana-vayu (one of
the five major modalities of prana) functions within the superficial
mind (manas), which processes the world in which we live. Attached to
the five senses and dominated by the superficial mind, which is filled
with idle chatter, prana-vayu carries the energy of emotion.
When the nadis become purified through proper lifestyle and the
practice of pranayama, prana is drawn into the sushumna-nadi and is
carried upward by udana-vayu (the upward moving modality of prana).
Then prana becomes the energy of immortality and guides the unfolding
of our consciousness. Breathing and metabolic rates are
extraordinarily slow, mental chatter stops, and the yogi experiences
bliss or “that” which has no words.
Pranayama is also a preparatory practice for the deeper stages of
meditation. Toward this end, pranayama begins the process of balancing
the flow of energy through the ida-nadi and pingala-nadi, which relate
to activity in the right and left sides of the brain.8 Pranic energy
normally resides in these channels, but when they become pure and
their flow balanced, the prana moves into the sushumna-nadi. Once
there, the mind of the yogi becomes still, the fluctuations of thought
disappear, and consciousness expands. The further stages of dharana
(concentration on a single point) and dhyana (sustained concentration
or meditation) focus and hold the yogi’s attention within the void
of the sushumna-nadi.
Through pranayama performed properly along with appropriate bandhas,
kundalini, the “serpent fire,” which usually lies dormant at the
base of the spine, awakens. Then it rises through the sushumna-nadi
and the yogi’s consciousness is liberated.
A third purpose of pranayama is the extension of life.9 Prana is life,
and its mastery through pranayama prolongs life. With proper practice
the yogi is able to control prana in such a way that there is no
dispersion of the life force.
Ayurveda teaches that one fundamental cause of disease and death is
parinama, or time in relation to motion. In other words, the faster we
move the faster biological time moves forward. This motion is not only
physical but mental as well. The result is aging, decay, and death.
Through pranayama and meditation, the motion of the mind slows and can
even be stopped. The result is the elongation and possible suspension
of biological time. In the stillness created, the body is relaxed and
prana flows freely without obstruction through the physical body to
heal and repair any damaged areas.
Ayurveda recognizes three bodily humors (doshas) called vata, pitta,
and kapha (wind, bile, and phlegm), which are closely related to three
energies prana, tejas, and ojas—life force, “fire/glow,” and
subtle energy. Whereas the doshas function primarily on the
anna-maya-kosha or physical body, their energetic counterparts
function primarily on the mano-maya-kosha or subtle body.
Mind (manas) and intellect (buddhi) are both superficial aspects of
and operate within the broader field of consciousness (citta). As I
have already mentioned, manas processes the ordinary physical world.
Buddhi also has two aspects, a higher and a lower. The lower aspect,
which is attached to the senses, organizes the sensory input from our
world and compartmentalizes our experiences so we can learn from them.
The higher aspect is not attached to the senses. It draws knowledge
and wisdom from atman, which is connected to the cosmic stream of
knowledge, the “Great” (mahat). From this connection, a person
receives “higher guidance” to act in ways that are sattvic and not
sensory based (rajasic and tamasic).
Prana manifests within our mind and consciousness as enthusiasm for
life. Its normal function provides motivation for living. Tejas is the
aspect of fire that provides illumination. Its normal function
provides motivation for knowing truth, and its outward expression
manifests through our intellect. Ojas, the substance that provides the
mind with stability, manifests in our consciousness and mind as
contentment.
In the sushumna-nadi, tejas can be understood as dormant kundalini
energy. Heightened prana is the force that raises kundalini though the
central nadi, which is stabilized and supported by ojas.
Yogic practices purify the nadis and remove obstructions to the flow
of kundalini. They also increase the activity of prana, which stokes
the fire of kundalini. As kundalini awakens, it rises through the
central channel. Ideally, this brings about peacefulness, higher
consciousness, and powers (siddhi). There are, however, potential
complications.
Imbalances in the Subtle Body Caused by Faulty Pranayama Practice
Whereas the ideal balance of the three doshas is determined at
conception and the ordinary person strives to maintain balance, a yogi
strives to steadily increase the subtle energies of prana, tejas, and
ojas. As prana rises, consciousness expands, as tejas rises perception
expands, and as ojas rises contentment deepens. When all three
energies rise proportionally, a person maintains health and balance
physically and emotionally while gaining the benefits of practice.
However, when prana or tejas rise without ojas, serious complications
manifest.
As prana rises within the body, it tends to dry out ojas. This is
simply a function of its dry, air-like quality. Similarly, as tejas
rises, it tends to burn out ojas, a function of its fire-like nature.
Ojas, being comprised primarily of water, functions to protect,
though, as I have noted, it is in danger of becoming depleted as prana
and tejas rise. Once depleted, the result is serious imbalance in both
the physical and subtle body.
Ojas is responsible for containing prana and tejas (kundalini) as the
latter rises through the sushumna-nadi. If ojas becomes depleted,
kundalini energy exits the sushumna and rages like a wildfire through
the body and mind causing destruction. Ayurveda understands this to be
the cause of many imbalances.
Symptoms of low ojas include poor stamina, sensitivity to minor
environmental, mental, or physical stresses, chronic irritability, and
easily losing one’s mental or emotional balance. Disturbances of
prana appear as anxiety, hyperactivity, depression, and uncoordinated
thought processes. Finally, tejas imbalances manifest as gullibility
or cynicism. The exact nature of the imbalance can be determined by
knowledgeable yogis or vaidyas (Ayurvedic practitioners), who then can
administer a prescription to restore balance in the system.
It is not only the sushumna that is in danger of this imbalance. These
three subtle energies also function in the manovaha-srota and the
samjna-vaha-srota. These are the channels of the mind and of
consciousness. If ojas becomes depleted, the mind becomes unstable and
the stream of consciousness is interrupted. The result is disturbed
emotions, pathological thoughts, and susceptibility to influences from
the subtle worlds. Western psychologists would classify this as
psychosis.
Knowledge of the subtle energies of the body, whether through Yoga or
Ayurveda, teaches that proper preparation is required before an
aspirant attempts to utilize yogic techniques such as pranayama. Yogic
texts have clearly warned unprepared students, without going into
detail to explain the physiology behind the warnings. Knowledge of the
subtle energies of prana, tejas, and ojas makes clear why proper
preparation is necessary.
Proper Preparation
Yoga doctrines teach that preparation means practicing the yamas and
niyamas as well as following an appropriate diet. In addition, it is
stated that persons of kapha nature may need to practice the six yogic
kriyas or purification practices.10 These practices include: dhauti,
basti, neti, tratak, nauli, and kapalabhati.
Knowledge of the three subtle energies makes clear the importance of
assuring that ojas is healthy before a person begins to practice the
yogic techniques, which activate prana and tejas. Ojas is strengthened
by activities that provide stability and nourishment. Hence, healthy
and consistent daily routines combined with proper diet lay the
foundation for building ojas.
The yamas and niyamas of Yoga articulated by Patanjali provide a
living foundation for Yoga practice based on integrity, insight,
discipline, and morality, which leads to the fortification of
consciousness. Without this, true enlightenment becomes impossible and
any apparent gains made will simply inflate the ego and bind the
practitioner further to the endless cycle of life and death.
Ayurvedic regimens called dinacarya (“daily work”) set forth daily
routines unique for each person’s constitution and are designed to
protect ojas. While for the most part de-emphasizing moral and
spiritual considerations, Ayurveda sets forth regimens to protect the
body and mind. These regimens manage the three pillars of life: rest,
digestion, and sexual energy in an effort to preserve and maintain
ojas.
Hence, practice of the yamas and niyamas combined with Ayurvedic
lifestyle and dietary regimens appears to offer the aspirant the most
complete preparation for his or her quest. They make it less likely
that complications will arise on the journey.
The Yogic and Ayurvedic Diet
Proper diet is an important part of the classic Hatha-Yoga path.
However, there are some modern yogis who de-emphasize it.11 Yoga
traditionally emphasizes a moderate diet consisting of sweet,
nourishing foods such as grains, some beans, milk, ghee, and honey, as
well as fruits and vegetables. Sour, salty, and pungent foods are to
be avoided. Alcohol and meat are strictly prohibited. In addition,
food should be consumed only when fresh.12
In general, sattvic foods are preferred over rajasic or tamasic foods.
Sattvic foods are foods that are fresh and pure and produce clarity in
the mind and health within the body. Rajasic foods create agitation
and tend to be spicy, while tamasic foods are heavy and produce mental
dullness and disease. Meat, canned food, and old food fall into this
category.13
The sweet taste is the most powerful for increasing ojas; thus the
yogic diet is formulated to build ojas. Care must be taken, however,
as many sattvic foods such as fruits and vegetables do not build ojas.
Hence, to assure that ojas is plentiful, the aspirant should consume
milk, ghee, grains, and some nuts in addition to fruits and
vegetables.
In order for the body to produce ojas, it is necessary for proper
digestion to occur. Without proper digestion, ama (internally created
toxicity) is created instead of ojas. Ayurvedic texts thus outline
regimens that not only include what to eat but how to prepare food and
then how to eat it in ways that protect agni (the body’s internal
fire that digests food). A healthy agni is essential to producing ojas.
There is much Ayurvedic literature available that addresses the unique
dietary needs of each person according to his or her constitution, and
the student of Yoga is well advised to pursue such reading or consult
with a practitioner of Ayurveda.
Physiological Effects on the Body
When practicing pranayama, the yogi observes several effects. First,
sweating may occur, a sign the nadis are being purified.14 In addition
the yogi may observe tremors or shaking as well as various other
neurological sensations, including seeing colors and lights and
hearing inner sounds.
Pranayama also has been reported to have the following physiological
effects: improved circulation, purification of the lungs,
physiological support for the liver, spleen, and kidney, stimulation
of peristalsis improving fecal excretion, sharpening of the intellect,
and improved memory.15 Pranayama is further understood to be effective
in treating conditions of the respiratory, circulatory, and nervous
systems, which are most directly dependent on pranic flow.16
The practice of pranayama decreases the rate of respiration and
elongates the breath. As yogic texts equate breath with life, they
interpret this to imply that life is elongated as well.
Pranayama cultivates the prana-agni or the fire that digests prana. It
is this digestion that transmutes prana into its higher form, where it
acts as a force for the transformation of consciousness. It is also
this agni that is responsible for purifying the nadis.17 Inhalation
feeds the fire. Retention purifies the prana. Exhalation rids the body
of its waste by-product. As the prana-agni slowly builds, the body
begins to lightly sweat. This aids the purification of the subtle
nadis.
Prana-agni is the heat associated with the kundalini, but it is not
limited to the kundalini. Prana-agni converts breath into life on the
physical level and life into immortality or enlightenment on the
subtle level.
Types of Pranayama and Their Effects from an Ayurvedic Perspective
Ujjayi: This pranayama is performed by inhaling through both nostrils
as if drawing water up a pipe. A hissing noise is made in the back of
the throat during inhalation. Inhalation is followed by retention, and
exhalation is done through the left nostril, which reduces mucus in
the throat, builds the digestive fire, and purifies all tissues and
nadis.18 Ujjayi also aerates the lungs, decreases phlegm, and tones
the nervous system. It has been recommended that those individuals
suffering from hypertension or coronary artery disease perform this
pranayama without retention.19
This mild form of pranayama increases prana, which secondarily
increases tejas. Excessive practice increases vata and pitta in the
physical body.
Surya Bhedana: Solar Breathing is performed by inhaling through the
right nostril (pingala), followed by retention, and then by exhalation
through the left nostril (ida).
This form of pranayama heats the body, increasing both tejas and
prana. It is a moderately aggressive pranayama that pacifies kapha,
increases pitta, and is neutral to vata. According to the medieval
Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika, this is beneficial for diseases of vata.20
Nadi-shodana: This technique, which is also called “alternate
nostril breathing” or anuloma-viloma,21 is performed by sitting in
the appropriate posture and inhaling through the left nostril (ida),
followed by retention, and exhalation through the right nostril
(pingala). The process is repeated beginning with inhalation through
the right nostril, followed by retention and exhalation through the
left nostril.22 This pranayama is often considered to be the most
basic type and the most effective for purifying the nadis.
Altermate nostril breathing increases prana. Its effect on tejas is
mild in the short term; however, excessive practice will still stoke
the fire of tejas. It is considered the best pranayama practice for
individuals of vata constitution as it is gentle and creates calm. In
healthy individuals it pacifies vata and is neutral to pitta and
kapha.
Bhastrika: This breathing practice is described as mimicking the
action of a bellows (bhastrika) blowing on a fire.23 As the name
suggests, it consists of a series of rapid inhalations and
exhalations. The exhalations are made by forcefully contracting the
lower abdominal muscles and pushing air out of the lungs. The
inhalations are made by releasing these contracted muscles and
allowing the breath to passively flow into the lungs. Some Yoga
authorities recommend against practicing this technique until the
nadis are purified by alternate nostril breathing.24 Several
variations exist for bhastrika, including inhalation through the right
nostril and exhalation through the left. This pranayama is very
aggressive and requires the most preparation. It is also among the
most important as it arouses kundalini and drives it though the three
granthis (obstructions), located in the first, second, and sixth
cakras.25 This awakening occurs only with repeated practice and proper
preparation and can take lifetimes to achieve. Bhastrika is very
heating and is not for those with weak constitutions or eye, ear, or
blood pressure pathology.26
Ayurveda considers this form of pranayama to increase pitta. It is
best for those of kapha constitution and may be practiced in limited
amounts by those with a vata constitution.
Bhramari-Pranayama: This breath is similar to ujjayi, but instead of a
hissing sound is accompanied by a humming sound, like a bee makes
(bhramari). The classic texts describe the sound of the bee in great
detail: The sound on inhalation resembles a female bee and on
exhalation a male bee.27 This form of pranayama has been reported to
be beneficial in the treatment of insomnia.28
A cooling breath, bhramari increases prana, pacifies pitta, and may
aggravate vata and kapha. The cooling action of the pranayama prevents
a rapid rise in tejas.
Sitkari: This is performed by inhaling through the tongue, which is
slightly protruded from the mouth while the lips are pursed, followed
by retention and then exhalation through both nostrils.29
Sitkari increases prana and cools and pacifies pitta, while possibly
aggravating vata and kapha. The cooling action of the pranayama
prevents a rapid rise in tejas.
Shitali: Similar to the previous pranayama, shitali is performed by
sticking the tongue further out between the lips and curling it into a
straw. Inhalation is followed by retention and then exhalation takes
place through both nostrils. Described as a cooling breath, it soothes
eyes and ears and has been noted to remove illness of the spleen,
liver, and gall bladder, and to eliminate fever.30
This pranayama also increases prana. It is cooling and pacifies pitta
while possibly aggravating vata and kapha. The cooling action of this
practice prevents a rapid rise in tejas.
Proper Practice
While pranayama can be practiced in many postures, siddhasana is the
most highly regarded.31 Still, any posture that keeps the spine erect
is considered adequate for practice.32
While different ratios of inhalation to exhalation and retention have
been mentioned, it is often recommended to begin simply by equalizing
the lengths of inhalation, exhalation, and retention. This is called
sama-vritti pranayama.33 In order to achieve this, a person may first
have to keep retention following inhalation to a lesser amount, slowly
building up over time until it is equal to inhalation and exhalation.
Retaining the breath after exhalation, or bahya-kumbhaka, is not
recommended for beginners. Once the student is competent in
sama-vritti pranayama, bahya-kumbhaka can be added beginning with a
lesser amount of time and working up to an amount equal to the other
phases.
Another way to practice pranayama is with ratios that are not equal.
Called vishama-vritti pranayama, the standard approach is to work
toward a ratio of 1:4:2:1, that is, inhalation, inner retention,
exhalation, and outer retention respectively.
Conclusion
Knowledge of the principles of Ayurveda is essential for every student
who begins to walk the path of Yoga. With this knowledge, students
learn the reasons behind the practices of Hatha-Yoga and are able to
walk their paths in a safe and rewarding manner. If problems do arise
on the path, students should consider seeing a practitioner of
Ayurveda to gain the insight and direction necessary to heal
themselves.
Endnotes
1. Swami Vishnu-devananda, Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Containing the
Commentary Jyotsna of Brahmananda (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass/Om Lotus
Publications, 1987), pp. 11 and 19 and chapter 2, sutras 15–17.
2. Ibid., chapter 1, sutra 11.
3. B. K. S. Iyengar. Light on Yoga (New York: Schocken Books, 1976),
p. 434.
4. Vishnu-devananda, op cit., p. 56.
5. Ibid., chapter 2, sutras 15–17.
6. Dr. K. S. Joshi. Yogic Pranayama (Delhi, India: Orient Paperbacks,
1983), p. 38.
7. Vishnu-devananda, op. cit., p. 74.
8. Ibid., p. 5.
9. Ibid., chapter 2, sutra 3.
10. Ibid., chapter 2, sutra 23.
11. Iyengar, Light on Yoga, p. 426.
12. Vishnu-devananda, op. cit., chapter 1, sutras 58–60.
13. B. K. S. Iyengar, Light on Pranayama (New York: Crossroad, 1999),
p. 43.
14. Vishnu-devananda, op. cit., chapter 2, sutra 12.
15. Iyengar, Light on Pranayama, pp. 48–49.
16. Hans-Ulrich Rieker, The Yoga of Light: Hatha Yoga Pradipika
(London: Georg Allen & Unwin, 1971), part 2, chapter 6, sutras
56–57.
17. David Frawley, Yoga and Ayurveda (Twin Lakes, Wis.: Lotus Press,
1999), p. 114.
18. Vishnu-devananda, op. cit., chapter 2, sutras 52–53. [Ed.: The
prescription to exhale through the left nostril is not universal.]
19. Iyengar, Light on Yoga, p. 443.
20. Vishnu-devananda, op. cit., chapter 2, sutra 50.
21. Ibid., p. 51.
22. Ibid., chapter 2, sutras 7–10.
23. Ibid., chapter 2, sutras 59–62.
24. Ibid., p. 81.
25. Ibid., p. 83.
26. Iyengar, Light on Yoga, p. 450.
27. Rieker, op cit., part 2, chapter 6, sutra 67.
28. Iyengar, Light on Yoga, p. 451.
29. Rieker, op cit., part 2, chapter 6, sutras 56–57.
30. Ibid., part 2, chapter 6, sutras 53–55.
31. Vishnu-devananda, op. cit., chapter 1, sutra 38.
32. Iyengar, Light on Pranayama, p. 55.
33. Ibid., p. 61.
© 2000 Marc Halpern
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